Targum

In the Bible

Targum is an Aramaic word meaning "translation" or "interpretation." It refers to the translations of the Hebrew Old Testament into Aramaic. The concept does not appear as such in the Bible, but two passages are related to it. Ezra 4:7 uses a Hebrew word from the same root in describing a letter sent to the Persian king that was "written in the Syrian tongue, and interpreted in the Syrian tongue." Nehemiah 8:8 describes the public reading of the book of the Law: "So they read in the book in the law of God distinctly, and gave the sense, and caused them to understand the reading." The Talmud is said to read this scene as the origin of Aramaic interpretation.

Background

After the Babylonian exile, Aramaic came into wide use as the everyday language of Jewish society. As a result, a custom arose in the synagogue whereby an interpreter would orally render the Hebrew Scripture reading into Aramaic, and these oral renderings were later committed to writing.

The principal Targums are as follows:

• Targum Onkelos: a translation of the Pentateuch.
• Targum Jonathan: a translation of the Prophets.
• Targum Pseudo-Jonathan and Codex Neofiti: Palestinian translations of the Pentateuch. "Pseudo" indicates that, although the work bears Jonathan's name, he was not its actual author.

Fragments of Aramaic translations of Job and Leviticus have also been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Scholars differ on when each Targum reached its final form. No Targums are known to exist for Daniel, Ezra, or Nehemiah; one proposed explanation is that portions of these books were already written in Aramaic.

Rather than rendering the text word for word, the Targums often incorporate interpretation. They soften expressions that describe God in human terms and frequently use the phrase "the Word of the Lord" (Memra) in place of "God." One example is Genesis 4:26, which states that in the days of Enos "then began men to call upon the name of the LORD." Some Targums reportedly interpret this verse as marking the time when people began to make idols.

Significance for the Bible as a Whole

Whereas the Septuagint is a Greek translation, the Targums are sources that show how Aramaic-speaking Jews understood Scripture. They are therefore used in textual studies that compare them with the Masoretic Text and in research on the background of the New Testament.

Scholars have also pointed to cases in which the New Testament quotes the Old Testament in a form closer to the Targums than to the Hebrew text. Ephesians 4:8 quotes Psalm 68:18 as saying that he "gave gifts unto men," whereas the Hebrew text reads "received gifts for men." The Targum of Psalms is likewise reported to render the verse in the sense of "gave." In addition, the cry from the cross, "Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani?" (Matthew 27:46), is Psalm 22:1 spoken in Aramaic.

Interpretation and Points of Discussion

• Canonical status: No church, including the Protestant denominations, accepts the Targums as canon. They are treated solely as ancient interpretive sources.
• Memra and Logos: Some scholars regard the Targumic "Word" (Memra) as background to the Logos concept in John 1. Others consider a direct connection difficult to establish.
• Messianic interpretation: Targum Jonathan is reported to render "my servant" in Isaiah 52:13 as the Messiah, but it applies the descriptions of suffering to other subjects. Consequently, Christian interpretations that link this passage with the Suffering Servant diverge from Jewish interpretations.
• Added narratives: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan in particular contains many legends and explanations not found in the biblical text. Such material must be distinguished from what the text itself directly states.

In the Korean Church

In the Korean church, the Targums are mentioned chiefly in commentaries and in seminary courses on the biblical languages and biblical backgrounds, rather than being used directly in preaching or worship.