Roman Citizenship

Biblical Text

In Acts, Paul receives legal protection on the basis of his Roman citizenship on three occasions.

• Philippi (Acts 16:37-38): Paul and Silas were beaten without trial and thrown into prison. The next day Paul protested that the authorities "have beaten us openly uncondemned, being Romans, and have cast us into prison." When the magistrates heard that they were Romans, they were afraid.
• Jerusalem (Acts 22:25-29): When the chief captain was about to examine Paul by scourging, Paul asked whether it was lawful to scourge a Roman citizen who had not been condemned. The chief captain said that he had obtained his citizenship for a great sum of money. Paul replied, "But I was free born." This chief captain is identified in Acts 23:26 as Claudius Lysias.
• Caesarea (Acts 25:10-12): While on trial before Festus, Paul declared, "I appeal unto Caesar." As a result, he was to be sent to Rome. The course of this trial is covered in detail in the article Felix and Festus. Later, Agrippa remarked that Paul might have been set at liberty had he not appealed to Caesar (Acts 26:32).

Philippians 3:20 states, "For our conversation is in heaven," a phrase commonly rendered in modern translations as "our citizenship is in heaven."

Background

Roman citizenship was originally granted to the free inhabitants of the city of Rome. It was later extended to people in the provinces through various means, including birth, manumission from slavery, military service, and imperial grant. As the chief captain's words suggest, citizenship could apparently also be acquired with money in some cases. Roman law prohibited the scourging or binding of citizens without a formal trial, and it is understood to have recognized the right of citizens to appeal to the emperor.

Philippi is introduced in Acts 16:12 as "a colony" of Rome, and its inhabitants took pride in their status as Roman citizens. The word rendered "citizenship" in Philippians 3:20 translates the Greek politeuma, while the word for citizenship in Acts 22:28 is politeia.

Paul also described himself as a citizen of Tarsus (Acts 21:39). Scripture does not, however, say how his family came to obtain Roman citizenship.

Significance in Scripture as a Whole

Paul used his Roman citizenship to protect himself and to open the way for the spread of the gospel. The fact that his appeal brought him to Rome is read as part of the fulfillment of the word "so must thou bear witness also at Rome" (Acts 23:11).

In the epistles, meanwhile, citizenship serves as a metaphor for the life of faith.

• Philippians 3:20: Declares that the believer's true belonging is in heaven.
• Philippians 1:27: The verb in "let your conversation be as it becometh the gospel of Christ" also carries the sense of "to live as a citizen."
• Ephesians 2:19: States that Gentile believers have now become "fellowcitizens with the saints."

Interpretation and Debated Points

The text does not explain why Paul did not make his citizenship known before being beaten at Philippi, and commentators' conjectures therefore differ.

Scripture likewise does not describe how citizenship was proven. The view that citizens carried a certificate is an inference drawn from the practices of the time.

Interpreters also place different emphases on "heavenly citizenship."

• Some interpretations stress a belonging set apart from the world and a hope for the future.
• Others point out that Paul also made legitimate use of his earthly citizenship and see this as grounds for believers to live responsibly within society.

In the Korean Church

Philippians 3:20 is frequently cited in sermons and funeral services under the expression "heavenly citizenship."