Byzantine Empire

Name and Background

"Byzantine" derives from Byzantion, the name of the ancient Greek city that later became the capital, Constantinople. Western European scholars applied the name in the sixteenth century, after the empire had fallen; its own inhabitants called themselves "Romans." For this reason scholars also use the name "Eastern Roman Empire."

Constantine I founded a new capital on the site of Byzantion and dedicated it in 330. In 380 Theodosius I established the Nicene faith as the official faith of the empire. After his death in 395, his two sons divided the rule of the empire between East and West. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, but the East endured for roughly another thousand years.

History

• The age of the councils (fourth and fifth centuries): The Council of Constantinople in 381 expanded the Nicene Creed, adding a confession concerning the Holy Spirit. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 defined that Christ, in one person, possesses both the nature of true God (divinity) and the nature of true man (humanity). In the course of these developments, Arianism and Nestorianism were rejected.
• Justinian I (r. 527–565): He issued a comprehensive compilation of Roman law and in 537 dedicated the cathedral of Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom").
• Seventh century: The empire lost extensive territories, including Syria and Egypt, to Islamic forces.
• The Iconoclastic Controversy (eighth and ninth centuries): Icons are images depicting Christ and the saints. A long dispute arose over whether icons could be used in the church. The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 approved the veneration of icons, and in 843 their use was definitively restored.
• Missions: In the ninth century Cyril and Methodius carried out missionary work among the Slavs. Grand Prince Vladimir of Kiev is reported to have been baptized around 988.
• Schism and decline: In the East–West Schism of 1054, the Church of Constantinople and the Church of Rome separated. In 1204 the Fourth Crusade captured the capital, which was not recovered until 1261.
• Fall: On May 29, 1453, the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople.

Legacy and Influence

• Orthodox Church: Byzantium's forms of worship, iconographic tradition, and understanding of the church were carried on in the Orthodox churches of Greece, the Balkans, Russia, and elsewhere.
• Biblical manuscripts: Many of the extant Greek manuscripts of the New Testament were copied during the Byzantine period. The Greek New Testament that Erasmus published in 1516 was based on manuscripts of this tradition and was used for Martin Luther's German translation of the New Testament.
• Background to the Reformation: As Greek scholars and texts moved to Italy around the fifteenth century, the humanist call to return "to the sources" gained strength in Western Europe. This movement is regarded as one of the background factors of the Reformation.
• Connections with the Korean church: Itineraries for pilgrimages to Türkiye organized by Korean churches often include Istanbul along with the seven churches of Asia Minor. Hagia Sophia became a mosque after 1453, a museum in 1934, and a mosque again in 2020.

Assessment

Eighteenth-century Western European Enlightenment writers often portrayed Byzantium as a stagnant, declining state. Since the twentieth century, scholars have reassessed it as a civilization that carried forward ancient Roman law, Greek learning, and the traditions of the church throughout the Middle Ages.

The relationship between church and state is described differently depending on perspective. Western scholars have used the term "caesaropapism" to indicate that the emperor dominated the church. Orthodox writers regard this term as an exaggeration and instead explain the relationship through the ideal of "symphonia," a harmony between emperor and church.

Protestants also differ in how much of this heritage they accept. Most Protestant denominations accept the early councils' decisions on the Trinity and Christology as standards of orthodox faith. By contrast, they generally do not accept the 787 decision on the veneration of icons. The Reformed tradition, including Presbyterians, tends to be strict about the use of images in worship on the basis of the second commandment of the Ten Commandments. Lutherans and Anglicans are comparatively more permissive regarding the use of pictures and crucifixes in churches.