Cluniac Reforms

Background

In the early tenth century, Western Europe was in turmoil as the Carolingian order collapsed, and many monasteries were treated as the private property of the noble families that had founded them. Patrons commonly held rights over monastic property and installed relatives, or men with no training in the monastic life, as abbots. As a result, the Rule of Saint Benedict (the rule for monastic life established by Benedict in the sixth century) was poorly observed.

Development

• Foundation in 910: William I (the Pious), Duke of Aquitaine, donated land at Cluny in Burgundy to found a monastery. Berno, abbot of Baume, was installed as its first abbot. The foundation charter dedicated the monastery to the apostles Peter and Paul, placing it under papal protection. It also provided that the monks would elect their own abbot, free from interference by William himself, his descendants, other secular powers, or the neighboring bishops.
• Odo (927–942): Odo, the second abbot, received authority from Pope John XI in 931 to reform other monasteries. He traveled to numerous monasteries, restoring a regular life that emphasized prayer, silence, and chastity.
• Odilo (994–1048): In 998 Odilo obtained from Pope Gregory V a privilege of exemption from the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Mâcon. In 1024 Pope John XIX extended this privilege to all Cluniac monasteries. This created a federation of monasteries united under the abbot of Cluny. Odilo supported the Peace of God and Truce of God movements, which sought to curb violence among feudal lords. By the time of his death, the number of affiliated monasteries had reached seventy.
• Hugh (1049–1109): Hugh accompanied Pope Leo IX on his journey to Rome in 1048, and after becoming abbot he continued to attend councils and to take part in the reform efforts of the papacy. The third abbey church, whose construction he began, was consecrated in 1131–1132. For centuries it was regarded as the largest church building in Europe.

Results and Influence

Cluny became a model of a monastery independent of secular powers and local bishops and directly subject to the pope. The reform placed great emphasis on solemn liturgy (prescribed rites of worship) and unceasing prayer. By the late twelfth century, Cluniac houses, large and small, are thought to have numbered more than 1,000. In the late eleventh century, a papally led church reform arose that targeted simony and the appointment of clergy by secular rulers. The Cluniac Reforms overlapped with this movement in both period and personnel; Pope Urban II, a former monk of Cluny, is a prominent example. Cluny's monastic church architecture had a major influence on the development of the Romanesque style.

However, as donated lands accumulated and Cluny became a vast landholder, criticism of its luxury grew from the late twelfth century onward. The Cistercians, who advocated a simpler monastic life, had emerged in 1098. The Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux is known to have criticized Cluny's splendor. The abbey was closed in 1790 during the French Revolution, and most of its buildings were destroyed.

Assessment

The Cluniac Reforms are regarded as a leading renewal movement of the medieval church. At one time, the view that Cluny was the driving force behind papally centered reform and the Investiture Controversy was widely held. Some scholars, however, treat the relationship between the two with caution, pointing out that Cluny also cooperated with emperors and kings. Protestant church histories likewise present the movement as one of the reform efforts that arose within the medieval church before the Reformation. Its attempt to separate the church from secular power and family interests draws particular attention. At the same time, commentators also point out that the reform contributed to the strengthening of papal power and that the reforming monasteries themselves grew wealthy and in turn became objects of criticism.