Thirty Years' War

Background

After the Reformation of the sixteenth century, Catholic and Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire remained in persistent conflict. The Holy Roman Empire encompassed roughly the territory of present-day Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic. The Peace of Augsburg of 1555 established the principle that each ruler would determine the religion of his own territory. However, the only permitted options were Catholicism and Lutheranism; Calvinism (the Reformed Church), which was spreading rapidly, was not recognized. In the lands ruled by the House of Habsburg, policies aimed at returning the population to Catholicism (the Counter-Reformation) were pursued under the influence of the Jesuits.

Course of the War

The war is commonly divided into four phases.

• Bohemian-Palatine phase (1618–1625): The Defenestration of Prague on May 23, 1618, is regarded as the beginning of the war. A revolt against the Habsburg dynasty broke out in Bohemia (present-day western Czech Republic), and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, emerged as its leader. The Palatinate was a Calvinist territory, and an elector was a prince who held the right to choose the emperor. However, when the combined imperial and Bavarian army under Tilly occupied the Protestant territories, Frederick V went into exile, which earned him the name "Winter King." Bavaria, which had aided Emperor Ferdinand II, received the electoral dignity in 1623.
• Danish phase (1625–1629): Denmark entered the war on the Protestant side but was defeated. The emperor then issued the Edict of Restitution in 1629 in an attempt to restore Catholic rights.
• Swedish phase (1630–1635): The entry of Sweden, a Lutheran country, turned the tide of the war back in favor of the Protestant side.
• French phase (1635–1648): France, a Catholic country, entered the war on the side of the Protestant camp in opposition to the Habsburg powers.

From the mid-1640s, delegations from the various states gathered to negotiate in Münster and Osnabrück in the region of Westphalia. The war ended when treaties were signed in the two cities on October 24, 1648.

Results and Influence

The Peace of Westphalia reaffirmed the Augsburg principle and also recognized Calvinism as an official faith. As a result, three faiths were recognized within the Empire: Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed.

• Normative year: January 1, 1624, was designated the "normative year," and the status of church property and religious affiliation on that date became the standard. The Edict of Restitution lost its force.
• Protection of minorities: Subjects whose faith differed from that of their ruler were guaranteed the right to worship privately at home or to emigrate. Subjects were no longer obliged to change their religion if their ruler changed his.
• Groups excluded from protection: Radical reform groups such as the Anabaptists did not receive this protection.
• Political results: The autonomy of the principalities within the Empire increased. Sweden gained territory in northern Germany, and Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands.

Assessment

Church historians commonly treat this war as the last of the large-scale religious wars that divided Europe after the Reformation. However, as the alignment of Catholic France with the Protestants illustrates, it is also widely accepted that religious issues in the war were intertwined with the constitutional structure of the Empire and with power struggles among the great powers. The Peace of Westphalia is often described as a milestone on the path toward religious toleration and secularization and as the starting point of the modern system of sovereign states. Some scholars note, however, that its principles did not take hold overnight. The German lands, where much of the fighting took place, are known to have suffered heavy loss of life and severe economic damage during the long war.