The March First Movement and Christianity

Background

Around 1919 there were between 200,000 and 300,000 Protestants in Korea, reportedly about 1 to 2 percent of the total population. However, churches and the schools founded by mission boards (mission schools) were spread throughout the country and could serve as a communication network linking various regions. In particular, many Presbyterian leaders in the northwestern region, including the provinces of Pyeongan and Hwanghae, had been imprisoned in connection with the 105-Man Incident.

Course of Events

• Preparation: On February 8, 1919, Korean students studying in Japan issued the February Eighth Declaration of Independence at the Korean YMCA building in Tokyo. In Korea, Christian figures including Elder Yi Seung-hun decided to take part not as representatives of their religion but as citizens of the nation, and they joined forces with Cheondogyo. The Buddhist community also joined the effort. Yi Gap-seong, O Hwa-yeong, and others traveled through the provinces, building a communication network with church leaders in each locality.
• National Representatives: Of the 33 National Representatives who signed the Declaration of Independence, 16 were Protestants: 7 Presbyterians and 9 Methodists. The remainder were 15 members of Cheondogyo and 2 Buddhists. Christian signatories included the Reverends Kil Sun-joo, Yi Pil-ju, and Sin Seok-gu.
• March 1: The National Representatives declared independence at Taehwagwan in Seoul. On the same day, demonstrations with cries of "Manse!" also began at Tapgol Park and in places such as Pyongyang, Uiju, Seoncheon, and Wonsan; the first day's demonstrations were largely led by the Christian community.
• Suppression: In early March, church members in Gangseo, South Pyeongan Province, were killed when Japanese troops opened fire. On April 15 the Jeam-ri Massacre took place: Japanese troops confined villagers inside the Methodist church at Jeam-ri, Hyangnam-myeon, Suwon County, Gyeonggi Province (present-day Hwaseong City), fired on them, and then set the building ablaze. The Canadian missionary Frank Schofield photographed the site and wrote reports that made the incident known abroad.

Results and Impact

• According to Japanese colonial statistics, of the 9,458 people imprisoned by the end of June 1919, 2,087 (about 22 percent) were Christians. Of the 19,525 people who served sentences by the end of that year, 3,373 (about 17 percent) were Christians.
• The Eighth General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church convened in October 1919, a month later than scheduled. The moderator, the Reverend Kim Seon-du, was unable to attend because he was in prison. At this assembly, the various presbyteries reported that 3,804 church members had been arrested, 134 of whom were pastors or elders. Losses such as deaths and destroyed church buildings were also reported. At the Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church held in November of the same year, it was likewise reported that several ministers were in prison.
• After the movement ended, the church broadened its activities to include social movements. One example is the Korean Products Promotion Movement of the 1920s, led chiefly by Presbyterians in Pyongyang.

Assessment

• Scholars of Korean church history generally hold that Christianity played a central role in preparing the March First Movement and spreading it nationwide. Yi Man-yeol, drawing on arrest and imprisonment statistics and other evidence, estimated that Christians made up roughly 20 to 30 percent of the movement's participants.
• Scholars differ in their emphasis regarding the character of the movement. One view regards it as a faith movement grounded in confession of faith. Another, noting that the Christian leaders themselves chose to participate as citizens of the nation, regards it as a national movement transcending denominations and religions. Still another view, pointing out that the list of signatories was arranged in the order Cheondogyo, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Buddhist, holds that the movement's character as a coalition of Cheondogyo and Christianity should also be emphasized.
• There are also critical assessments. The Christian Messenger (Gidok Sinbo), the joint organ of the Presbyterian and Methodist churches, has been criticized for responding only feebly to the movement, even allowing for Japanese censorship. Critics also note that two of the sixteen Christian National Representatives later turned pro-Japanese, and that in 1938 the Presbyterian General Assembly passed a resolution endorsing Shinto shrine worship.